denotation和connotation 毛荣贵 跋涉译林,对英语汉语之异同,当有“凌绝顶”之鸟瞰,对英汉语之“美”,当了然于胸,如此,方不至于迷途于茫茫译林;如此,方能译出精彩。 笔者曾经参加了《新英汉词典》(世纪版)(上海译文出版社)的修订工作,修订英汉词典,案头自然也少不了一部汉语词典。徜徉在英语辞典和汉语词典之间,竟也时时感受到两种语言文化交会时的撞击,而感慨丛生。 一个强烈的对比是:汉语词典对一个个词语的解释单纯而清晰,一目了然,犹如春日破土而出的竹笋,没有分叉,没有枝蔓,短而利落;而英语辞典对单词的诠释则洋洋洒洒,一如长成的竹子,除长长的竹竿外,还有婆娑的枝叶。 以“脚趾”一词为例,《现代汉语词典》(p.637)对它的释义是:脚前端的分支。 而英语中的tiptoe一词的释义和用法就如长成的竹子,枝叶繁多。《新英汉词典》(世纪版)对tiptoe的词形就提供了四种,含义也琳琅满目: 1.作名词(脚趾) 2.作副词(踮着脚) 3.作形容词(踮着脚走或站的;小心翼翼的;偷偷摸摸的;兴奋的;得意洋洋的;急切的;期待的) 4.作不及物动词(踮起脚;蹑手蹑脚地走)等 该词典还提供了两个与tiptoe有关的成语:be on the tiptoe of expectation(翘首以待;殷切期待);on tiptoe(踮着脚;急切地;期待地;悄悄地;偷偷摸摸地) 细析之下,读者很快就能发现英语辞典对单词释义之所以“臃肿庞杂”,其源在于英语词汇的丰富的转义。 “脚趾”和tiptoe的类比,便足以说明问题。 英语能够对tiptoe一词加以淋漓引申,加以尽情演绎,英语的这种能力或特色令我们以汉语为母语者惊诧不已,同时还有几分暗羡。 一个俗词tiptoe,居然能从“踮着脚走或站的”出发,不断引申,以至于有了“小心翼翼的;偷偷摸摸的;兴奋的;得意洋洋的;急切的;期待的”诸多转义! 我尝想,以汉语为母语者,终其一生,能有几次用到“脚趾”一词呢?汉语词典明白告诉我们,国人对“脚趾”一词,只用其本义(脚前端的分支),而不用或者说根本没有转义,脚趾就是脚趾,别无他义。 英汉驾词驭字之渊别,由此可见一斑。本讲欲对导致这种渊别的denotation和connotation作一浅析。
一、何谓denotation和connotation 这是英语词汇学的两个十分重要的概念。 webster’s new world dictionary对它们作了如下的定义: denotation: the direct, explicit meaning or reference of a word or term. (p.368) connotation: idea or notion suggested by or associated with a word, phrase, etc. in addition to its explicit meaning, or denotation: “politician” has different connotations from “statesman”. (p.295) 《英汉大词典》释义如下: denotation: (词等的)指示意义,本义: the denotation of “home” is “place where one lives”, but it has many connotations. “home”这个词本义是“家”,但它还有多种隐含意义。(p.452) connotation: 内涵意义,隐含意义;转义: “politician” has different connotations from “statesman”. “政客”和“政治家”具有不同的内涵意义。(p.360) 以上两部词典所提供的释义使我们对这两个概念有了一个基本的印象。denotation,又称dictionary meaning, inherent meaning, central signification,其对应的汉译除了《英汉大词典》所提出的“指示意义,本义”之外,尚有“词典意义”、“所指意义”、“中心意义”、“外延意义”等译名;而connotation又名non-inherent meaning, secondary meaning,其对应的汉译除了《英汉大词典》所提出的“内涵意义,隐含意义;转义”之外,还有“涵义”、“比喻意义”、“引申意义”、“次要意义”等名称。 本文取目前较流行且较简明的说法:denotation---本义;connotation--- 转义。
二、denotation与connotation的主要形式 webster’s new world dictionary在述及denotation与connotation时措词极为精当,它用了“word or term”,“ a word, phrase, etc.”,而没有具体言明这个词的词性。其实,英语使用词汇的转义,已经到了“竭泽而渔”的地步。绝大多数的英语词汇除denotation之外,都或多或少地存在connotation。甚至,其connotation的含义超过了denotation。现列举一词为例。 storm(n.)的本义是a rough weather condition with wind, rain, and often lightning.在这个意义上,该词对所有使用英语的人都是一样的。使用其本义的词不论出现在怎样的上下文中,其意义均固定不变。如: 1.the islanders were warned that a storm was coming. 岛民们已经得到警报,暴风雨即将来临。 2.the forecast says there will be storms. 预报称将有暴风雨。 请再读: 3.but his last words brought on another storm. 可是,他最后的言辞引起了激烈的反响。 4.the book provoked a storm of controversy. 这本书挑起了一场热烈的争论。 5.her singing took new york by storm. 她的歌唱在纽约引起了轰动。 6.we thought that they had decided not to get married but their quarrel was just a storm in a teacup. 我们想他们已经决定不结婚了,可是,他们的争吵不过是小题大做而已。 我们在阅读以上3、4、5、6四句时,其中的storm使我们在其本义的基础上通过联想而获得其隐含、比喻或引申意义。这四个storm用的是其转义。其形式可以是单词(如句3中的storm),也可以是词组,(如句4中的a storm of),也可以是约定俗成的习语(如句5中的to take…by storm; 句6中的storm in a teacup)。 storm(v.)的本义是to be stormy; blow violently, rain, snow, etc.如: 1. it stormed so hard that all the electricity went out. 风雨大作,全都停电了。 2. it stormed all the day. 暴风雨终日未停。 请再读: 3. their only hope of victory was to storm the enemy camp at night. 他们获得胜利的唯一希望就是在夜间突袭敌军的营地。 4. the mob stormed through the streets. 暴徒们洗劫了街市。 5. he stormed at me for five minutes on end. 他对我咆哮了整整五分钟。 6. john stormed in the meeting waving a piece of paper about. 约翰在会议上咆哮不止,手里还挥动着一张报纸。 3、4、5、6四句中的storm均为转义: stormy(adj.)的本义是: having or characterized by storms.如: 1. don’t take the boat out in this stormy weather. 在暴风雨大作的情况下,不要把船驶出去。 2. it’s too stormy to sail today. 风浪太大,无法起帆。 请再读: 3. today’s meeting was rather stormy. 今天的会议颇不平静。 4. he was in a stormy mood. 他正在狂怒之中。 5. his parliamentary career was stormy. 他的议员生涯充满曲折。 6. he turned back and met her stormy eyes. 他转过身,正好遇到她那双怒目。 3、4、5、6四句中的stormy均为转义。
三、英语中除以上所示的名词、动词及形容词的转义比较活跃以外,介词的转义也相当活跃。如: at(prep.)的本义是:on; in; near; by. 如: 1. his son was at cambridge. 他的儿子在剑桥大学。 2. let’s meet at the entrance of the station. 我们在车站入口处见面吧。 请再读: the children are always at me to take them to the zoo. 孩子们老是缠着我,让我带他们到动物园去。 above(prep.)的本义是:in, at, or to a higher place; overhead; up. 如: 1. we flew above the clouds. 我们在云层上面飞翔。 2. the temperature was only a degree above zero. 气温只有零上1度。 请再读: he ought to be above cheating in the examination. 他在考试中不应该作弊。 beside(prep.)的本义是:by or at the side of; alongside; near.如: 1. the church at stratford is beside the river. 斯特拉特福的教堂坐落在河边。 2. dinny saw her uncle walking out beside the girl. dinny看见她的伯父和女孩一起走了出来。 请再读: beside last year’s results, the figures for this year have fallen. 和你去年的结果相比,今年的数字有所下降了。 以上三个用于转义的介词at,above和beside已分别引申出动词、否定和比较意义。 三、connotation---- 汉译英的重要措辞方法 如果认为,词典上所记录的词义即为dictionary meaning,即“本义”,那未免太片面了。其实,目前流行的中型辞书,如《新英汉词典》(世纪版)、longman dictionary of contemporary english、advanced learner’s dictionary等无一不详录了词的本义和转义,而且,词的本义所占据的篇幅远在转义所占据的篇幅之后。 初入译林者应注意培养对英语词汇转义的敏感性。hartwell在论述词语的字面意义及其引申意义之区别时举了一个很有趣的例子: a college professor tells of talking with a foreign student in her office when a colleague stopped in to ask about a problem. “it’s taken care of,” she replied. “i chewed him out, and it won’t happen again.” “you mean”, gasped the student incredulously, “that you bit him?” 这则语言笑话的缘由在于:对chewed him out,言者用其转义(webster’s new world dictionary,p. 242: to rebuke severely; reprimand; often with out,即“责骂”之意),而闻者(the foreign student)却取其本义(wnwd p.242: to bite and grind or crush with the teeth.即“用牙齿咬并磨碎”之意)。 英语和汉语的这种区别,严重地制约影响着我们的英语学习。且不说汉译英,就说对英语原文的理解,在英语灿若朝霞的单词转义面前,我们往往思路关闭,想象折翅。 最近,笔者嘱学生翻译下段: most of us, however, take life for granted. we know that one day we must die, but usually we picture that day as far in the future. when we are in buoyant(本义:有浮力的) health, death is all but unimaginable. we seldom think of it. the days stretch out in an endless vista(展望). so we go about our pretty tasks, hardly aware of our listless(冷漠的) attitude toward life. 重点句是:when we are in buoyant(本义:有浮力的) health, death is all but unimaginable. 句中的buoyant已经提供了本义,但是,学子们却仍视之若畏途,不能跨越。 请读他们的译文: 1.我们大多数人对生命的意义不甚清楚。当我们尽情享受着浮华的生活时,死不过是件不可想象的事情。 2.当我们处于基本艰苦的状况时,死亡是不可想象的。 3.当我们艰苦还是生机澎湃时,死是难以想象的。 4.当我们处于“飘飘然”的健康状态时,死亡并非不可想象的。 5.当我们青春飞扬的时候,死亡是那么不可想象。 6.当我们的健康发生问题时,死亡就不再是不可想象的,而我们很少想到这一点。 7.当我们的健康只是一种表面现象时,死亡并非不可想象。 8.当我们的健康状况有起伏时,死亡也是无法想象的。 9.当我们受病魔缠身时,死亡就绝不是不可想象了。 一个形容词buoyant,难倒一批学子!何也?其源可溯至英汉驾词驭字之渊别。假如说英汉语的句法之别在于“形合(hypotaxis)和意合(parataxis)”,那么,是否可以说,英汉语的词法之别在于“本义(denotation)和转义(connotation)”? 当然,现代汉语也在演变之中,行文至此,笔者在报上独到这样一句广告语:世纪大手笔--- 淮海中路旗舰摄影广场 “旗舰”二字,并非店名,而用作形容词。这个用法是新的。《现代汉语词典》对“旗舰”的释义简约如“笋”,只有本义:某些国家的海军舰队司令、编队司令所在的军舰,因舰上挂有司令旗(晚间挂司令灯),所以叫做旗舰。中国人民解放军叫指挥舰。 而英语词典里的flagship(旗舰)则繁茂如“竹”,除了本义外,亦“挂”上了不少转义:最佳者;最优秀;王牌等。同理,以英语为母语者,终其一生,也许极少用到flagship的本义,但是,其转义却被频繁使用。如: the bank’s flagship downtown branch 该银行最重要的市中心分行 a flagship computer company 名列首位的计算机公司 that school has been the flagship of the city’s education system. 那所学校一直是该市教育系统中的王牌。 此例告诉我们,假如我们对英语词汇中丰富多彩的转义感到隔膜,不善利用,那么,我们所掌握的许多英语词汇将是死的,而不是活的。比如flagship一词,我们能有几次在汉译英中用到其本义(旗舰)呢?反之,一旦译者能够自如地活用英语词汇的转义,我们的译文将有另一番景致,我们的实际词汇量也将成倍增加。 请看上一讲中的一个译例: 二十岁的时候,有书店必逛,有书必买。三十岁之后,对书店视而不见,直接去了隔壁的美容院。 at the age of twenty, bookstore was a must for me, and i was a big book buyer. while after thirty, paying no attention to the bookstore, i breeze into the beauty parlor next door. 译者没有将原句中的“去了”二字简单地译成went into/stepped into,而是别出心裁地运用了breeze一词,不仅绘其形,而且传其神!遗憾的是,善用breeze的转义者为数实在太少。
四、connotation风行英语的心理依据:synaesthesia synaesthesia是一个心理学名词,含义是:联觉,牵连感觉;共同感觉。webster’s new world dictionary对它做出的释义是: sensation felt in part of the body when another part is stimulated. a process in which one type of stimulus produces a secondary, subjective sensation, as when some color evokes a specific smell. 钱钟书先生曾用“通感”二字来取代“联觉”。唐诗名句“红杏枝头春意闹”常被用来注释synaesthesia。一个“闹”字,触动的分明是我们的听觉系统,但是,所“牵连”的确是我们的视觉。因为一个“闹”字,分明让读者眼前出现杏花怒放,争奇斗艳之景。 所谓synaesthesia,未必就是基于人的各种感官感觉之间的“错位”而获得的“通感”。从广义言,读者的阅读是对视觉的运用(即felt in part of the body),而阅读所能产生的极为有限的视觉美感之外的其他感觉(即another part)都可一并称为synaesthesia,都是一种“牵连感觉”。应当看到,所谓感官之间的“互动”领域狭窄而有限。“暗香浮动月黄昏,疏影横斜水清浅”一类的打通嗅觉和视觉,混淆视觉和触觉的名言佳句毕竟有限,而大量存在的却是阅读时的视觉所牵连的形形色色的感官刺激、心理起伏和联想展开,可以说,通过阅读而产生的各种感官感觉、心理变化和思维活动等都可归入synaesthesia的范畴。 而synaesthesia的基础是个人的生活经验、知识容量、想象能力和感悟水平。其中,又以前两者为核心。 比如,以汉语为母语者并不难理解、掌握和运用tiptoe的转义。如: with christmas coming, the children were on tiptoe. 即使读者对tiptoe的转义一无所知,对其转义也能有所感悟,而把上句理解为:圣诞节快到了,孩子们都殷切盼望着。因为,“翘首盼望”与on tiptoe之间存在着形象而又内在的“生活经验”的关联。
五、connotation风行英语的“硬件”探源:conversion 以“脚趾”一词为例,汉语不用或不存在其转义,这并不说明tiptoe一词不具备synaesthesia的功能。英语就对此功能进行了成功开发。 英语能够对tiptoe这样的词汇进行synaesthesia的功能开发,汉语没有对“脚趾”进行开发,这丝毫不说明汉语的“落后与幼稚”,更不能说明以汉语为母语者缺乏想象,思维保守,不善开拓。 追根溯源,这也许是英汉语言,或曰英汉词汇各自固有的特征使然。 据笔者陋见,英语对其词汇的synaesthesia功能开发如此成功,如此如鱼得水,词汇的转义如此绚丽多彩,如此琳琅满目,也许同英语词汇“易如反掌”的词性转换(conversion)不无关系。 再以tiptoe一词为例,其synaesthesia的功能能够得以充分开发,其转义令人美不胜收,一个根本原因就是在于名词tiptoe能“摇身一变”,用作副词、形容词或动词。 别小看了这“摇身一变”!这就为tiptoe施展synaesthesia搭起了广阔的舞台,这就为tiptoe具备一系列的转义设定了必需的前提。换言之,假若,英语中的tiptoe只能用作名词,那么,其精彩的转义将不复存在,《英汉大词典》(p.1987)上明明白白地写着,当tiptoe用作名词时,它的含义是:脚趾尖,脚尖。仅此“本义”而已,别无“转义”! 当然,这也不是绝对的。以flagship一词为例,当该词用作名词时,就已经存在极为丰富的转义。 但是有一点是可以肯定的,那就是英语词汇“易如反掌”的词性转换令其转义辈出,令其表达添翼。笔者曾作痴想:假若把英语词汇的全部转义删除,那么,现在的英语词典将从总量上砍掉2/3! 应该承认,汉语也有词性之转换。比如:春风又绿江南岸,其中的“绿”字就被当作动词在使用。目前流行一句广告语:做女人“挺”好。这个“挺”字在广告语中被用作了动词,而不是用作副词(作“很”解)。 遗憾的是,汉语的词性转换远远比不上英语,汉语“循规蹈矩”,名词就是名词,动词就是动词,大有“井水不犯河水”之势。 再说breeze一词,英语能够轻易地将它用作动词,因此就可以演绎出to move or go quickly, jauntily, easily的含义,(参见wnwd)。再翻阅《现代汉语词典》,在“微风”的词条下注着:微弱的风:微风拂面。气象上指3级风。汉语不如英语那么重视词性,汉语词典一般都不注明词性。这大概有两个方面的原因,一是汉语的单词的词性相对单纯,不存在那么多变化;二是查阅者能够意会。我们知道,“微风”就是名词,绝对不能用作动词,如说“她微风进了美容院”。 假如说,synaesthesia是词汇获得转义的“软件”,那么,conversion则是词汇获得转义的“硬件”。“软件”对汉语来说是不成问题的,而汉语所缺少的却是“硬件”!
六、connotation和metaphor 综上所述,我们已经明白connotation即通过开发synaesthesia的功能,借助conversion的形式所达到的一种新颖脱俗的表达,而synaesthesia,或曰牵连感觉,又是非常理性,非常科学的,所谓“牵连”,必然存在可牵连之因素,风马牛不相干的事物是无法牵连的。据笔者观察,这里的“可牵连因素”在很大程度上源于比喻因素(metaphoric factor)。实际上是一种省略了主体,而仅用其喻体的表达。如: i breeze into the beauty parlor next door. 可改写成:i go into the beauty parlor next door in a manner like breeze. 又如: with christmas coming, the children were on tiptoe. 可改写成:with christmas coming, the children were anticipating its arrival so eagerly as if they were on tiptoe. 改写句虽然保留了原句的形象,但是措辞之冗杂足现其拙句本质,这种“嚼饭与人”式的表达无人喝彩。 wnwd为metaphor下的定义是: a figure of speech containing an implied comparison, in which a word or phrase ordinarily and primarily used of one thing is applied to another. e.g. the curtain of night, “all the world’s a stage”. 《英汉大词典》在metaphoric的词条下还收入了metaphoric meaning,将它诠释为:比喻义,并提供了例句:i had sprouted metaphoric wings.我长出了比喻意义的翅膀。 本文前面曾经引用了wnwd为connotation所下的定义: idea or notion suggested by or associated with a word, phrase, etc. in addition to its explicit meaning, or denotation: “politician” has different connotations from “statesman”. 细读以上的两条定义,我们可以发现两者之间的“姻缘”关系。 英国的语言学家peter newmark曾经对metaphor下过一个非常广义的定义: by metaphor, i mean any figurative expression: the transferred sense of a physical work; the personification of an abstraction; the application of a word or collocation to what it does not literally denote, i.e., to describe one thing in terms of another. peter newmark如此强调metaphor的无处不在: all polysemous words (a ‘heavy’ heart) and most english phrasal verbs (‘put off’, dissuader, trouble, etc.) are potentially metaphorical. metaphors may be ‘single’--- viz. one-word, or ‘extended’ (a collocation, an idiom, a sentence, a proverb, an allegory, a complete imaginative text). 因此,我们是否可以下这样的结论: connotation和metaphor异曲同工,就本质言,并无二致。假如我们不能放心地划以下等号:connotational meaning = metaphoric meaning,至少我们可以大胆地划以下的约等号:connotational meaning ≈ metaphoric meaning。
七、英汉语使用词的转义的异同 如前所说,英汉语的句法之异在于“形合(hypotaxis)”与“意合(parataxis)”,那么英汉语的词法之别则在于“本义(denotation)”和“转义(connotation)”。 亮出这个观点,并不意味:汉语不使用、不欣赏词的转义。其实,“转义”可认为是一切语言的一个共性。《辞海》(1999年版)就收入“转义”,并对其释义是:一个词由其本义中派生出来的意义,包括引申义和比喻义两类。 汉语词的“转义”,自古有之,如: 范仲淹在他的名篇《岳阳楼记》中有这样的佳句:予观夫巴陵胜状,在洞庭一湖。衔远山,吞长江,浩浩荡荡,横无际涯,朝晖夕阴,气象万千。此则岳阳楼之大观也。 其中的“衔”、“吞”,用的就是转义。《现代汉语词典》收入了“衔”的本义:用嘴含。并提供例句:燕子衔泥/他衔着一个大烟斗。词典为“衔”提供的最后一个例句是:日已衔山。该词典认为:此例句中的“衔”,用的是“比喻义”。 英语词典(或英汉词典)在列出一个词的本义之后,即续列转义,几个,十几个,甚至几十个,转义还附有例句或例词,洋洋洒洒,蔚为壮观。对照之下,《现代汉语词典》就显得有点“寒碜”,除了列出词语的本义外,一般不另列“转义”。该词若有转义,最多不过在例句中加以体现。如“衔”的转义就是通过例句“日已衔山”加以“暗示”的。 词典的这种对“转义”的编辑处理方式在一定程度上折射了一个客观现象:汉语词汇的“转义”的发育远不如英语那么健全,使用也远不如英语那么广泛。 在这样的大背景下,汉语的“转义”词的英译,常可直译。比如上句里的“衔”和“吞”字,在以下的英译中就被直译: dongting, nibbling at the distant hills and gulping down the yangtze river, strikes all beholders as vast and infinite, presenting a scene of boundless variety; and this is the superb view from yueyang pavilion. 另如: 攀登科学高峰,无坦途可走。 there are no easy paths to the heights of science. 原句中的“坦途”,也被轻易地直译为easy paths。 英语和汉语的转义词放在一起的时候,我们便感受到这样一种区别:英语的转义词,气象万千,瞬息万变,灵活自如;汉语的转义词则显得循规蹈矩,一本正经,缺少变化。汉语的转义词数量少,且多为相对固定表达。如: 1.寻花问柳:rove among flowers and willows --- visit places/houses of ill fame; be promiscuous in sex relations; frequent houses of courtesans; go about in the hope of finding girls; go to house of professional gayety; spend time with prostitutes; visit frequently brothels. 其中的“花”、“柳”已不能从本义去理解。 2.润色:embroidery; retouch; polish; larded with; give the final polish to; touch up 这篇文章需要润色。this article needs polishing. “润色”的对象也只能是“文章”。 3.虎穴龙潭:the tiger’s lair and the dragon’s den ---- a hazardous spot 当“虎穴”和“龙潭”联合使用,构成成语时,“虎穴”和“龙潭”已不用其本义。 4.添油加酱:add color and emphasis to…; add inflammatory details to a story etc. 同样,“添油”与“加酱”构成成语,“油”与“酱”也不用其本义。 英语转义词和汉语转义词的这个区别不可小视。存在决定意识。汉语使用转义词的氛围是如此拘谨慎微,如此“束手束脚”,因此,国人在使用英语的转义方面,就难以有所作为,就缺乏如鱼得水般的自如,如鸟入林般的洒脱。比如: 我从小就对自己没有信心,这是问题的根子。这种情绪使我受到一点点表扬都会难为情,使我怎么也说不出一个“不”字,也使我不敢向父母多要一分钱。此外,这种缺少信心的情况也影响了我对钢琴的热爱。 对于这段文字,我们读到的英译通常是: i lacked confidence since childhood, which was the root of the problem. i would feel embarrassed while receiving the slightest praise. i found it hard to say “no”. i even dared not to ask for one more cent from my parent. besides, this lack of confidence also influenced my love for piano. 译文老老实实,似乎很“信”。从这种典型的英译中,我们处处看到汉语的影子,不仅句子的结构“循规蹈矩”,措辞更是拘谨,压根儿没有想到去运用英语单词的转义。英语单词的转义是一种极为可贵的“资源”,可是,这种“资源”竟在国人的译笔下白白地流走了! “转义资源”,一旦开发,其英译将是怎样一种情景呢?请读译文: all the root of it is my diffidence by which i have been enslaved since childhood. it embarrasses me at the mildest flattery, crushes my utmost efforts to say “no”, and prevents me from asking my parents for one cent more than necessary. among other things, diffidence has wormed its way into my love of piano. 且不说译文的句子由原来的5句变成了3句,并出现了倒装句及非人称主语句等显示表达活力的句型,让读者双目一亮的,更有几个转义词的成功运用。比如:enslaved, crushes, wormed (its way into )等等。 enslave用作单词时,其本义是:使……成为奴隶;奴役。“我从小就对自己没有信心”的英译中竟然用上了enslave!这是初学翻译者无论如何也不敢想的。打开词典,我们发现,enslave的这种转义用法并不罕见。《英汉大词典》就收入了以下例句: his alcoholism has completely enslaved him. 嗜酒癖使他完全身不由己。 he was enslaved by too many bad habits. 他染上了许多恶习。 动词crush的本义是:压碎,碾碎;压服;压垮;粉碎;(使)变形等。不料,在此英译中译者竟然使用my utmost efforts to say “no”作其宾语,真是用足了crush一词的转义! 最后,成语worm its way into的转义也被运用的恰到好处。令我们始料不及的是,其主语竟然是抽象名词diffidence!
八、品味 鉴赏 模仿 在汉译英中能用足“转义”这个资源,首先需要静心品味英语转义词所特有的表情达意的魅力。 可以毫不夸张地说,一旦英语词汇转义的资源得以开发,汉译英的译文质量将有质的飞跃。如: 原文:急流冲下了山,像狮子在怒吼。建筑工地也失去了平静,工人们急忙起床,发现自己的脚踩在水里。一百多工人同时向南奔跑,但是,那里的洪水已经有两英尺深,浊浪翻滚,工人们只得在混乱中半途而返。东面和西面也没有退路,唯一的出路是背面的一条狭窄的木桥。 译文:torrents of water rushed down the mountain, roaring like an angry lion. the construction site awoke, the workmen rolled off their beds only to step into water. more than 100 thronged southward simultaneously. but there, floodwater more than two feet deep was whirling a wild dance, so the workmen had to draw back halfway in disorder. there was no way out eastward or westward either. the only savior then was a narrow wooden bridge in the north. 原文精彩可读,英译的描写与叙事也同样有声有色,着墨经济却扣人心弦,用词精少却给人联想。细探其源,转义词的运用功不可没!译文中出现的三个词(awoke/rolled/savior),就其本义言,本是寻常词: 1. awoke (vi.): to rouse from sleep 2. rolled (vi.): to move by turning on an axis or over and over 3. savior (n): a person who saves 可是,当它们在译文中以“转义”的面目出现的时候,全句,乃至全段译文顿时生色,读者的想象在其本义的基础上十分自然地得以驰骋,读者的感悟绝非使用非转义词所能相比。假如以非转义词来覆盖译文中的转义词,译文将是如何一种景象呢?试比较句a(含转义表达)与句b(使用非转义表达): a: the construction site awoke… b: the construction site suddenly became active and noisy…… a: …the workmen rolled off their beds… b: …the workmen got up very quickly… a: the only savior then was a narrow wooden bridge in the north. b: the only way out then was a narrow wooden bridge in the north. 转义词在描写与叙事的文字中能有如此之效果,在议论性质的文字中的转义词是否也有同样的功效呢?请读一段议论性文字: 从表面看,家庭平静,如同湖面,波澜不兴。然而,事实上,家庭的表面平静下面存在着急流。外人见不到这种急流,因为,中国人信仰“家丑不可外扬”。他们关起门来争吵或是打架。这个差距是非常自然的,要想绕着走是不可能的。唯一的道路就是面对它。有隔阂一定会有弥合的办法,这个办法就是理解。 译文:superficially, the family looks as calm as the surface of a lake without any waves. in fact, however, there is some current under the calmness of the family. the current remains hidden from outsiders, because the chinese believe that “domestic shame should not be made public”. they quarrel and fight with the door shut. the gap is very natural. it is impossible to by-pass it. the only way is to face it. there is always a bridge over the gap, and the bridge is understanding. 即使是对denotation与connotation缺乏概念的初学者也常不知不觉地在运用转义词。译者在翻译上文的“差距”和“隔阂”的时候,一般都会使用gap一词,而gap的本义却是:a hole or opening, as in a wall or fence, made by breaking or parting. 以上议论性的文字的译文也十分可读,也因有“转义词”(如:current/by-pass/bridge等等)的介入。同样,就其本义言,它们本是寻常词。如: 1. current (n): a flow of water or air, esp. when strong or swift, in a definite direction. 2. by-pass (v.): to go around instead of through. 3. bridge (n): a structure built over a river, railroad, highway, etc. to provide a way across for vehicles or pedestrians 若将三句中的转义词易成本义词,读之将味同嚼蜡。如: a: there is some current under the calmness of the family b: there are quarrels and fights in the family, though it appears to be peaceful. a: it is impossible to by-pass it b: it is impossible to avoid it intentionally. a: there is always a bridge over the gap b: there is always a way to solve the problems caused by general gap.
九、connotation的修辞功能 如前所说,单词转义常常建立于词性转换的基础上。如: 1. the old lady mothered him during his illness. 2. investigation fathered the baby on him. 句中的mother与father原系名词,现用作动词。句1中的mothered意即“母亲般的照料”;句2中的fathered的含义更趋丰富,全句的大意是:调查证明他是这婴儿的生父。 connotation本身就是一种修辞。《辞海》对“转义”的释义是:一个词由其本义中派生出来的意义,包括引申义和比喻义两类。“比喻义”就暗示了其修辞功能。除了“比喻”的功能外,connotation还另具拟人、夸张等修辞功能。如: 1. the girls are blooming with health and beauty. 2. a soft wind kissed the treetop. 3. the price of food is soaring. connotation除了具有修辞功能之外,在汉译英中,它还另具功能。比如: a.化难为易 初学翻译者的运用词汇量毕竟有限,若善用词的转义,我们所掌握的词汇简直可以“以一当十”,并可解“燃眉之急”。如: 1.他的爸爸正在为锯子锉齿。 “为锯子锉齿”如何译是好?这恐怕会让许多译者蹙眉。可是,一旦你会活用词(tooth)的转义,问题便迎刃而解: his father was toothing a saw. 2. 他的讲话离题了。 你也许会将上句译成:he digressed from the subject. /he strayed from the point.万一你还没有掌握digress/stray两个单词,不必犯难,也许你已经学到了branch(枝,分支)一词,何不使用branch的转义来救急呢?如译: his talk branched off from the subject. 3. 她的额头上缀满了晶莹的汗珠。 原句非口语表达,颇有点文采,“缀”和“晶莹”二字也许让你紧张。不必紧张,你若是会使用pearl(珍珠)一词的转义,你的译笔就会很轻松,很洒脱: sweat pearled her forehead. 4. 挖泥船(dredge)将淤泥从湖底挖起。 当你吃不准上句里的“挖”字是否能够用dig的时候,也不必冥思苦想,你完全可以将一个俗词spoon(匙、调羹、勺子)“拿”来使用,用其转义: the dredge spooned up mud from the bottom of the lake. b. 化繁为简 denotation和connotation的根本区别也许在于:后者能唤起读者的丰富联想与驰骋想象,所谓“联想”与“想象”,即我们通常所说的“言外之力”,而这种“言外之力”是使用前者所难以获得的。因此,当一个词的运用能获得“字外力量”时,其表达的简洁性也就不言而喻了。一般言之,在使用一个转义词时,其“容量”即“本义词+附加成分”,这个“附加成分”往往是含修饰意味的副词(或副词性词组)与形容词(或形容词性词组)。如: 1. gold shares jumped at the stock exchange yesterday. 句中的jumped = rose rapidly 2. the nickname stuck to him. 句中的stuck to = was used (to him) for a very long period of time. 3. john bent before the storm of his father’s anger. 句中的storm = the furious anger (of his father) 4. you cannot offer me a loose translation like that. 句中的loose = a translation too free, too liberal 当然,不少用作成语的转义词的“容量”更大。如: 1. this is her tender spot. = this is something she doesn’t want others to mention. 如果句中的spot相当于something的话,那么tender一词的“弦外之音”即which she doesn’t want others to mention。 2. jack is a fair-weather friend. = jack is a friend, helpful, dependable only in agreeable, easy circumstances. 句中的fair-weather含义极丰,其“言外之意”就不宜直言--- 只能共享欢乐,而不能同舟共济共患难。 c.化平面为立体,化呆板为形象 转义常建于某种辞格(最常见的为暗喻、拟人等)基础之上,转义常令某种形象脱颖而出,读者的想象也随之驰骋。我们知道,英语名词有表示类概念的词(genus)(又称上义词,支配词)与表示种概念的从(species)(又称下义词,受支配词)之分。 walk(行走)作为一个类概念词,有其种概念词:wander(闲逛),shuffle(拖着脚走),trot(小步跑),walk(走),creep(爬行),dash(猛冲),dawdle(游荡),run(奔跑),rush(急奔),straggle(流离,落伍),trudge(跋涉)等等。 有趣的是,所有walk的这些含义精微的种概念词均可用于转义,若用于汉译英,译文会令读者获得一种鲜活的形象感,而这种形象又反衬出运用“本义词+附加成分”的表达的平淡与呆板,试比较: 1.她的谈话缺乏中心。 she wandered in her talk. = she was not well centered in her talk. 2.别吞吞吐吐的了,请给我一个明确的答复。 don’t shuffle; give me a definite answer. = don’t speak evasively; give me a definite answer. 3.他能脱口说出一些新的借口。 he is always able to trot out some new excuse. = he is always able to produce some new excuse quickly. 4.你怎么能够如此马虎地做完家庭作业呢? how could you walk through your homework like that? = how could you finish your homework so hurriedly and roughly? 5.一般情况下,他能写出相当好的英语,但是偶然会使用些非地道的表达。 as a rule he writes english very well, but occasionally unidiomatic expressions creep in. = as a rule he writes english very well, but occasionally unidiomatic expressions would be used here and there before he realized it. 6.我必须在离开之前把这几封信给赶出来。 i must dash off some letters before i leave. = i must finish writing some letters very quickly before i leave. 7.patty虚度了四年的大学生活,所学甚少。 patty dawdled away four years in college. = patty wasted much time and achieved very little during the four-year college life. 8.他的眼睛扫了前排的座位。 his eyes ran down the front row. = he looked very quick from right to left at the front-row. 9.他一目十行地读完了这本书。 he just rushed through the book. = he read the book quickly and roughly. 10.孩子们难免走神。 children cannot keep their minds from straggling. = children cannot keep their minds concentrated for a long time. 11.jack为了应付考试,不得不啃完这本乏味的书。 jack had to trudge through the dull book for the exam. = jack had to concentrate his attention forcefully to finish reading the dull book for the exam. d.化平直为委婉 转义词常含“弦外之音”与奇妙的“言外之力”,这实际上在告诉我们,它不是一种直言,而是一种“曲言”,它不是开门见山的表达,寻求一针见血的效果;它是“旁敲侧击”的暗指,寻求“字里行间”的魅力。 在揭他人之短时,转义会有效磨去语锋,试读以下英译: 1.汤姆毫无音乐鉴赏力。 all music is alike to tom. 形容词alike用了转义,相当于of no difference。 2.马琳的身世有不愿他人提及之处。(即难言之隐) marline has a history. history的转义:something in the past which is unmentionable。 3.他不善辞令。 he does not shine in conversation. does not shine的转义:not that outstanding。 4.她的父亲现在正失业。 her father is now between jobs. 介词between也被用了转义,用得绝妙。 5.他在文章中随意歪曲事实。 in his article he made free with the facts. made free with的转义:distorted
十、他山之石,可以攻玉 许多汉语的名著或名篇都可以找到现成的英译本。这些英译本可以成为我们学习翻译的范文。其中不乏成功运用英语转义的佳译。比如: 1.旧历的年底毕竟最像年底,村镇上不必说,就在天空中也显出将到新年的气氛来。 -------鲁迅《祝福》 the end of the year by the lunar calendar does seem a more natural end to the year for, to say nothing of the village and towns, the very sky seems to proclaim the new year’s approach. 小析:最值得欣赏的是其中的proclaim,它是一个“大词”,本义是:宣布,声明等。译者大词小用,用其转义,来译原文中的“显出”,让我们始料不及。然而,细品之下,又会觉得入情入理。 2. “听说北海的花儿都开了,我推着你去走走。”她总是这么说。母亲喜欢花,可自从我的腿瘫痪后,她侍弄的那些花都死了。 ----------史铁生《秋天的怀念》 “they say that the flowers in beihai park are in bloom now. let me wheel you there.” she used to say. mother loved flowers dearly, but ever since my legs became paralyzed, all her flowers had died. 小析:“我推着你去走走”如何译?其中“推”字的背景是“我”双腿瘫痪,无法行走,坐在轮椅上,于是,母亲提出“推”我去北海看花。翻译此句,我们真正感受到了转义确实能够“化难为易;化繁为简”。一个wheel,原是名词,现用作动词,而且让读者一眼就能感悟到“推轮椅去……”的含义,因为“轮椅”,在英语中被称为wheelchair。若不用转义表达,译文将是这样:you sit in the wheelchair, and i’ll push your wheelchair there. 3. 一切齐全了,各人蹲在舱板上三碗五碗把腹中填满后,天已夜了。水手们怕冷怕冻的,收拾碗盏后,就莫不在舱板上摊开被盖,把身体钻进那个预先卷成一筒又冷又湿的硬棉被里去休息。 ----沈从文《鸭巢围的夜》 when the meal was ready, everyone aboard could wolf down three or five bowls. by then it was dark. when the bowls had been cleared away, the boatmen who felt cold or tired out spread their bedding on the deck and burrowed into their stiff, clammy quilts which they had laid out like tubing. 小析:且不说译文wolf down three or five bowls中的wolf用得何等形象跃出,就是“把身体钻进那个……”中的“钻”字被译成了burrowed,就足以让读者把玩一番!何谓burrow?用作名词,它特指“(野兔等动物的)穴、洞等”,用作动词,意思就是“挖地洞”。原文中的一个“钻”字,不含修辞色彩,而译文使用的burrow却明显带有修辞色彩,词义丰厚,给人浮想,让人回味。不得不承认,就burrow的措辞而言,译文的可读性胜过原文。 4.我第二次到仙岩的时候,我不禁惊诧于梅雨谭的绿了。 ----朱自清《绿》 the second time i visited xianyan i was staggered by the green of plum rain pool. 小析:原文中的“惊诧”仅仅写神,而英译用staggered,则是有神形兼备的境界。 5. 初下泄滩,你看着那万马奔腾的江水会突然感到江水简直是在旋转不前,一千个,一万个旋涡,使得“江津号”剧烈震动起来。 ----刘白羽《长江三日》 when we reach the xie shoals, the rushing water seems to be spinning and whirling round and round, while tens of thousands of eddies make the whole boat shudder. 小析:原文“剧烈震动”用的是词的本义,“震动”一词,在英语中不乏相应的本义表达,诸如:shake/convulse/jar/vibrate/jolt/bump等等,但是译者却独辟蹊径使用了shudder(本义:战栗,发抖)的转义,文采为之灿烂! 6. 那妇人听得说,心中哽咽,又见了这封书,一时哭倒,声绝在地。 ----施耐庵《水浒》 the young woman uttered heart-rending sobs, tears streaming down her chee when she saw the annulment document she collapsed swooning to the floor. 小析:“一时哭倒,声绝在地”比较难译。译者却能化难为易,全仗转义词一助!collapsed一词,在我们的印象中,是一大词,“倒塌;崩溃;瓦解”之意也。岂料,其转义却能用得如此轻巧随意! 7. 武松拿起碗,一饮而尽,叫道:“这酒好生有气力! 主人家,有饱肚的买些吃酒。” ----施耐庵《水浒》 wu song raised the bowl and drained it. “this wine has a kick in it! if you’ve got anything filing, host, i’ll buy some to go with the drin” 小析:“这酒好生有气力”或许会难倒许多译者,不能直译,也难意译。若要依靠英语单词的本义来对付“气力”二字,又谈何容易?译者不愧译林高手,避难就易地使用了kick一词来译“气力”,让人拍案!kick一词,在英语中的转义之一是:反击力,反应能力;刺激等。用来形容酒,即指酒的“后劲”。将“气力”译成kick,不仅获得了语义上的对等,如:the wine has a lot of kick.这酒的后劲很足。更重要的是还获得了文体上的相称。 8.柴进因何不喜武松?原来武松初来投奔柴进时,也一般接纳管待。 ----施耐庵《水浒》 why, incidentally, had chai jin cooled towards wu song? when he first arrived, he was treated with the same hospitality as any other guest. 小析:“不喜”二字,译者没有草率处理,简单译成dislike,而是别出心裁地译作cooled。cooled的转义比使用本义词更生动贴切,值得读者寻思。从下文观,这里的“不喜”,无非就是态度比较冷淡而已。一个cool,写活了“柴大官人”的心理和神情。 9. 那时已是申牌时分。这轮红日,厌厌地相傍下山。武松乘着酒兴,只管走上岗子来。 ----施耐庵《水浒》 it was late afternoon by then, and the red sun was pressing on the mountains in the west. still primed by all the wine he had consumed, wu song continued climbing the ridge. 小析:“乘着酒兴”四个字极其难译。译者却出其不意地运用了动词prime的转义。何谓prime?用作及物动词时,它的本义是:(给加燃料或注水等)使起动,使进入工作状态;给(气缸或发动机)注燃料发动。如:prime an engine给发动机加燃料发动;prime a lamp with oil给油灯注油。当我们了解了prime一词的本义,由此基础上派生出的丰润的转义,再联系到武松喝足了三碗不过岗的“透瓶香”而上山打虎的背景,不禁会慨叹:妙哉,primed! 十一、运用词的connotation的两个注意点 a.在很多情况之下,同一个英语单词取其本义还是取其转义,在词的用法上并没有什么区别。如: in august the peach blossomed out. he saw his daughter was blossoming out. 以上两句中的动词blossom (out)的用法无甚变化,句子结构也大同小异。 有时情况并非如此。一个单词用其本义还是用其转义,在用法上大相径庭。如:动词have作本义讲,表示“有”,没有被动语态,但have作转义词时含有“欺骗”的意义,此时的have可以用于被动语态。如: 你曾受过骗吗?have you ever been had? 又如:arrive at 1. they arrived at the splendid stadium. 2. the two parties arrived at an agreement last monday. 句1无法转换成被动语态,而句2则可。如: an agreement was arrived at last monday by the two parties. 再如:go into 1. the engineers went very carefully into the tunnel. 2. the engineers went very carefully into the problem. 仅句2可转换成被动语态,如: the problem was carefully gone into by the engineers. 此外,本义形容词与转义形容词有时在用法上也有所不同。作定语的本义形容词可有时用作表语。如: 1. that old man--> that man is old. 2. a new student--> the student is new. 但是转义形容词通常只作定语,而不能同时作表语。我们可以说a firm friend(一个坚定的朋友),a true scholar(一个真正的学者),a complete fool(一个十足的蠢人),但不可以说the friend is firm. the scholar is true. the fool is complete.原因在于这里的firm,true,complete都是转义形容词。 本义形容词常可被转换成名词形式: 1.a firm handshake--->the firmness of the handshake maker 2.a true report-->the truth of the report 但是,这些形容词用于转义时,即不能转换成名词形式。 b.英语的转义词具有一定的修辞色彩,常基于词性转换的基础之上,因此,就文体而言,转义词常显得不那么正式和庄重。如: 中华你好十五年三月二十五日,就是国立北京女子师范大学为十八日在段祺瑞政府前遇害的刘和珍杨德群两君开追悼会的那一天,我独在礼堂外徘徊,遇见程君,前来问我道…… ----鲁迅《纪念刘和珍君》 on march the twenty-fifth in the fifteenth year of the republic, the national beijing women’s normal college held a memorial service for two girls, liu hezhen and yang dequn, who were killed on the eighteenth in front of duan qirui’s government house. i was pacing along outside the hall, when miss cheng came up to me… 这是一段非常肃穆的文字,其英译没有使用任何词的转义。这并不是说,英译无转义词可用。比如,butcher/eliminate/liquidate/mar/slaughter等词汇均可用于转义,传达kill的意义。但是,在如此庄重的文体中,一切转义词将有损原文的精神。故以上英译使用了kill一词。
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